This article is about the leader of Egypt. For other people named Muhammad Ali, or Mehmet Ali, see Muhammad Ali (disambiguation) and Mehmet Ali.
| Muhammad Ali Pasha | |
|---|---|
 | |
 An 1840 portrait of Muhammad Ali Pasha byAuguste Couder | |
| Reign | 17 May 1805 – 2 March 1848 |
| Albanian | Mehmet Ali Pasha |
| Arabic | محمد علي باشا |
| Turkish | Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Paşa |
| Born | 4 March 1769 |
| Birthplace | Kavala, Macedonia, Rumeli eyalet, Ottoman Empire(present-day Greece) |
| Died | 2 August 1849 (aged 80) |
| Place of death | Ras el-Tin Palace, Alexandria,Egypt Eyalet, Ottoman Empire(present day Egypt) |
| Buried | Mosque of Muhammad Ali,Cairo Citadel, Egypt |
| Predecessor | Ahmad Khurshid Pasha |
| Successor | Ibrahim Pasha |
| Wives | Emina of Nosratli Madouran Ayn al-Hayat Montaz Mahivech Namchaz Ziba Hadidja Chams Safa Shama Nour |
| Dynasty | Muhammad Ali Dynasty |
| Father | Ibrahim Agha |
| Mother | Zeinab |
| Religious beliefs | Islam[1] (Hanafi) |
Muhammad Ali Pasha al-Mas'ud ibn Agha (Arabic: محمد علي باشا, Muḥammad ʿAlī Bāšā) (Mehmet Ali Pasha in Albanian; Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Paşa inTurkish)[2] (4 March 1769 – 2 August 1849) was an Albanian commander in the Ottoman army, who became Wāli, and self-declared Khedive of Egypt andSudan. Though not a modern nationalist, he is regarded as the founder of modern Egypt because of the dramatic reforms in the military, economic and cultural spheres that he instituted. He also ruled Levantine territories outside Egypt. The dynasty that he established would rule Egypt and Sudan until theEgyptian Revolution of 1952.
This article is about Tewfik Pasha. For Ahmed Tevfik Pasha, the last Ottoman grand vizier, see Ahmed Tevfik Pasha.
| Tawfik Pasha | |
|---|---|
| Khedive of Egypt and Sudan | |
 | |
| Reign | 1879 - 1892 |
| Born | 15 November 1852 |
| Birthplace | Cairo |
| Died | 7 January 1892 (aged 39) |
| Place of death | Helwan |
| Predecessor | Ismail Pasha |
| Successor | Abbas II |
| Consort | Princess Emine Ibrahim Hanımsultan |
| Offspring | HH Princess Nazli bint Muhammed Hanım HH Abbas II Hilmi Bey HH Prince Muhammed Ali Bey HH Princess Hadice Hanım HH Princess Nimetallah Muhammed Hanım |
| Dynasty | Muhammad Ali Dynasty |
| Father | Ismail Pasha |
| Mother | Princess Shafiq-Nur |
HH Muhammed Tewfik Pasha (Tawfiq of Egypt) (30 April or 15 November 1852 – 7 January 1892) (Arabic: محمد توفيق باشا) was Khedive of Egypt and Sudanbetween 1879 and 1892, and the sixth ruler from the Muhammad Ali Dynasty.
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[edit]Early life
He was the son of Khedive Ismail, and was born on November 15, 1852. His mother was the Princess Shafiq-Nur. Although he was the eldest son, he was not sent to Europe to be educated like his younger brothers, but was left to grow up in Egypt.
In 1866, Ismail succeeded in his endeavor to alter the order of succession to the Khedivate of Egypt. The title, instead of passing to the eldest living male descendant of Muhammad Ali, was now to descend from father to son. Ismail sought this alteration mainly because he disliked his uncle, Halim Pasha, who was his heir-presumptive, and he had imagined that he would be able to select whichever of his sons he pleased for his successor.
But he found, after the change had been made, that the powers interpreted the new arrangement as applying strictly to the eldest son. Tewfik therefore became heir-apparent.
He was given a palace near Cairo to live in, and for twelve years he passed an uneventful life, farming, and establishing a reputation for good sense and fair dealing with his fellow tenants.
[edit]Marriage
In Cairo on 15 January 1873 he married HH Princess Emine Ibrahim Hanımsultan (Constantinople, 24 May 1858 - Bebek, Bosphorus, 19 June 1931), daughter of HE Damad Ibrahim Ilhami Pasha Beyefendi (3 January 1836 - Constantinople, 9 September 1860), created Damad in 1858, and wife (m.Constantinople, 31 July 1858) HIH Princess Munire Sultan (Constantinople, 9 December 1844 - Constantinople, 29 June 1862), and maternal granddaughter of Abdülmecid I by fourth wife.
[edit]Life
In 1878 he was appointed president of the council after the dismissal of Nubar Pasha. He held this office only for a few months; but this was long enough to show that, if he was unambitious and not particularly intelligent or energetic, he had the wisdom to refrain from taking a part in the intrigues which then formed the chief part of political life in Egypt and Sudan.
He went back to his estate, and settled down once more to a quiet country life. He was not left undisturbed for long. On 26 June 1879, Ismail, at the instance of Britain and France, was deposed by the sultan, who sent orders at the same time that Tewfik should be proclaimed Khedive.
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[edit]Reign
The new khedive was so displeased by the news of his accession that he soundly boxed the ears of the servant who first brought the tidings to him. Egypt and Sudan at that time was involved in financial and political troubles brought about by the policy of Ismail, and the situation was made worse by the inaction of Britain and France for some months following Tewfik's accession.
Tewfik's people were dissatisfied, his army disaffected; his advisers were nearly all of the adventurer class, with their own ends to gain; and he himself had neither the character of a strong ruler nor the experience that would have enabled him to secure an orderly administration of affairs.
Disorder prevailed until November 1879, when the dual control was reestablished by the governments of Britain and France. For over two years Major Evelyn Baring (afterwards Lord Cromer), Mr. (afterwards Sir) Auckland Colvin, and Monsieur de Blignieres practically governed the country, endeavouring to institute reforms while possessing no means of coercion.
During all this time the disaffection in the Egyptian army was increasing. Tewfik had been blamed for his failure to take a firm line with the rebels, but his attitude was governed by his relations with Britain and France, and he was unable to control events.
The dissatisfaction culminated in the anti-foreign movement headed by Urabi Pasha, who had gained complete command of the army. In July 1882 the attitude of Urabi, who was carrying out defensive works on a large scale, made the British admiral (Sir Beauchamp Seymour, afterwards Lord Alcester) to declare that he would bombard the forts of Alexandria unless they were handed over to him.
Before the bombardment began it was suggested to Tewfik that he should leave the city and embark either upon a man-of-war belonging to one of the neutral powers, or in his own yacht, or in a mail steamer which was then in the port. His answer was, "I am still Khedive, and I remain with my people in the hour of their danger." At his palace of Qasr el-Raml, three miles (five kilometers) from the town, he was beyond reach of the shells, but his life was nevertheless imperiled.
When the rebel soldiers attacked the palace he managed to make his escape and to reach another palace after passing through the burning streets of Alexandria. Here he was obliged to agree that a guard of British bluejackets should protect him from further risk. He showed his courage equally during thecholera epidemic at Alexandria in 1883.
He had gone back to Cairo after the Battle of Tel al-Kebir, had consented to the reforms insisted upon by Britain, and had assumed the position of a constitutional ruler under the guidance of Lord Dufferin, the British special commissioner.
When cholera broke out, he insisted upon going to Alexandria. His wife accompanied him, and he went round the hospitals, setting an excellent example to the authorities of the city, and encouraging the patients by kind and hopeful words.
In 1884, Sir Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer) went back to Egypt as diplomatic agent and Consul-General of Britain. His first task was to demand that Tewfik should abandon the Sudan. Tewfik gave his consent with natural reluctance, but, having consented, he did everything he could to ensure the success of the policy which Baring had been sent to carry out.
He behaved with equal propriety during the negotiations between Sir H. Drummond Wolff and the Turkish envoy, Mukhtar Pasha, in 1886. His position was not a dignified one but that of a titular ruler compelled to stand by while others discussed and managed the affairs of his country.
The Sultan was his suzerain; in Britain he recognized his protector: to the representative of each he endeavoured to show friendliness and esteem. As time went on his confidence in Baring increased, until at last he deferred to the British agent in almost everything.
On occasion, however, he acted on his own initiative, as when in June 1888 he dismissed Nubar Pasha and summoned Riaz Pasha to form a ministry, an action influenced, nevertheless, by Tewfiks knowledge of the divergence of views between Nubar and the British agent.
Baring encouraged Tewfik to show his activity in matters of administration, and he took a great interest in all matters connected with irrigation, education and justice. He was not an imposing man, but he showed a genuine desire to govern his country for its own benefit. He understood the importance to Egypt of British assistance and support; his natural shrewdness made him accept the British conditions; his natural good feeling kept him from any inclination to intrigue.
In private life he was courteous and amiable. He had no desire to keep up the unapproachable state of an oriental ruler. Indeed, in many ways his manners and habits were less oriental than European. He married in 1873 his kinswoman, Amina Hanem, with whom he lived very happily. She was his only wife and Tewfik was a strong advocate of monogamy.
He died on 7 January 1892, at the Helwan Palace near Cairo, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Abbas II.
[edit]Issue
By his wife he had the following children:
- HH Princess Nazli bint Muhammed Hanım (1873 - Cairo, 1879)
- HH Abbas II Hilmi Bey, Khedive of Egypt and Sudan
- HH Prince Mohammed Ali Tewfik (Cairo, 9 November 1875 - Lausanne, 18 March 1955), married on 25 November 1941 to Suzanne Hemon, without issue
- HH Princess Hadice Hanım (Cairo, 2 May 1879 - Cairo, 22 February 1951), married in Istanbul on 31 January 1895 to HE Prince Muhammed Abbas Halim Pasha (Shobra, 29 September 1866 -Helwan, 10 January 1935), and had issue:
- HGlory Nabila Vidjdan Halim (Halki, 31 March 1897 - 4 February 1966), married to Nagui Morali, without issue
- HH HGlory Nabila Kerime Halim Hanım Efendi (Halki, 15 March 1898 - 28 March 1971), married firstly at Constantinople, Beşiktaş, Beşiktaş Palace, on 26 March 1920 and divorced in 1932 her cousin HIH Prince Şehzade Osman IV Fuad Efendi (Constantinople, Ortaköy, Ortaköy Palace, 24 February 1895 - Nice, 19 May 1973, buried at Bobigny Cemetery in Paris), 41st Head of the Imperial House of Turkey between 1954 and 1973, without issue, and married secondly in Cairo on 4 June 1934 to HH Prince Yusuf Kemal Pasha (17 October 1882 - 1 February 1967), without issue
- HH HGlory Nabila Emine Halim Hanım Efendi (Constantinople, 1 June 1899 - Istanbul, 6 December 1979), married firstly at Constantinople, Nişantaşı, Nişantaşı Palace, on 4 June 1919 and divorced in 1923 her cousin HIH Prince Şehzade Abdurrahim Hayri Efendi (Constantinople, Yıldız Palace, 14 August 1894 - Paris, 1 June 1952), and had female issue, married secondly in Berlinon 28 May 1925 Kemaleddin Sami Pasha (1873 - Berlin, 15 April 1934), without issue, married thirdly in Halki on 10 October 1936 and divorced in 1937 HG Nabil Omar Said Halim (Yeniköy,Bosphorus, 16 February 1898 - 1954), without issue, and married fourthly Sabri Bey, without issue
- HGlory Nabila Tewfika Halim (Halki, 6 August 1900 - ?), married in Istanbul on 11 September 1919 to Abbas Celaloğlu (7 May 1897 - ?), and had issue:
- HGlory Nabila Nimetullah Halim (Halki, 10 July 1908 - ?), married in Istanbul on 27 August 1931 to Ahmad Celaloğlu, without issue
- HGlory Nabila Zeyneb Halim (Halki, 10 April 1915 - ?), married in Helwan on 2 April 1931 and divorced in 1932 Ihsan Hasan Mohsen (1908 - Villa d'Este-Montorfana, 11 October 1949), without issue
- HH Princess Nimetallah Muhammed Hanım (Cairo, 4 November 1881 - 1966), married firstly in Cairo on 8 January 1896 and divorced in 1903 HH Muhammed Celal Toussoun Pasha (Alexandria, 1 January 1874 - 1932), created HH in 1902 but deprived of the title in 1931, and had issue, and married secondly in Cairo on 5 May 1904 to HSH (His Sultanic Highness) Prince Kamal el Dine Hussein (Cairo, 20 December 1874 - Toulouse, 6 August 1932), without issue:
- HG Nabil Adil Toussoun Pasha (Cairo, 28 November 1896 - ?), married firstly in Cairo in 1924 to Emine Sabry (? - Cairo, 3 May 1925), and had issue, and married secondly in Cairo on 29 June 1926 to Negibe Moheb, without issue:
- HG Nabil Muhammed Tewfik Toussoun (b. Cairo, 18 April 1925), Lecturer at the University of California, unmarried and without issue
- HG Nabil Adil Toussoun Pasha (Cairo, 28 November 1896 - ?), married firstly in Cairo in 1924 to Emine Sabry (? - Cairo, 3 May 1925), and had issue, and married secondly in Cairo on 29 June 1926 to Negibe Moheb, without issue:
| Farouk | |
|---|---|
| Official Seal of the King of Egypt | |
 Photograph of Farouk I by Riad Shehata | |
| Reign | 28 April 1936 – 26 July 1952 |
|---|---|
| Coronation | 29 July 1937 (aged 17)[1] |
| Arabic | فاروق الأول |
| Born | 11 February 1920 |
| Birthplace | Abdeen Palace, Cairo,Egypt |
| Died | 18 March 1965 (aged 45) |
| Place of death | Rome, Italy |
| Buried | Al-Rifa'i Mosque, Cairo,Egypt |
| Predecessor | Fuad I |
| Successor | Fuad II |
| Consort to | Farida (née Safinaz Zulficar) (m. 1938; div. 1948) Narriman Sadek (m. 1951; div. 1954) |
| Offspring | Princess Ferial Princess Fawzia Princess Fadia Fuad II |
| Dynasty | Muhammad Ali Dynasty |
| Father | Fuad I |
| Mother | Nazli Sabri |
| Religious beliefs | Sunni Islam |
| Signature |  |
Farouk I of Egypt (Arabic: فاروق الأول Fārūq al-Awwal) (11 February 1920 – 18 March 1965), was the tenth ruler from the Muhammad Ali Dynasty and the penultimate King of Egypt and Sudan, succeeding his father, Fuad I, in 1936.
His full title was "His Majesty Farouk I, by the grace of God, King of Egypt and Sudan, Sovereign of Nubia, of Kordofan, and of Darfur." He was overthrown in the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, and was forced to abdicate in favor of his infant son Ahmed Fuad, who succeeded him as King Fuad II. He died in exile in Italy.
His sister was Princess Fawzia Fuad, first wife and Queen Consort of the Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.
[edit]Reign
The great-great-grandson of Khalid Kamel Pasha, Farouk was of Albanian descent as well as native Egyptian and Turkish descent through his mother Queen Nazli Sabri.[2][3] Before his father's death, he was educated at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, England. Upon his coronation, the hugely popular 16-year-old King Farouk made a public radio address to the nation, the first time a sovereign of Egypt had ever spoken directly to his people in such a way:
| “ | And if it is God's will to lay on my shoulders at such an early age the responsibility of kingship, I on my part appreciate the duties that will be mine, and I am prepared for all sacrifices in the cause of my duty... My noble people, I am proud of you and your loyalty and am confident in the future as I am in God. Let us work together. We shall succeed and be happy. Long live the Motherland! | ” |
Farouk was enamored of the glamorous royal lifestyle. Although he already had thousands of acres of land, dozens of palaces, and hundreds of cars, the youthful king would often travel to Europe for grand shopping sprees, earning the ire of many of his subjects. It is said that he ate 600 oysters a week.[4] In 1951 he bought the pear-shaped 94-carat Star of the East Diamond and a fancy colored oval cut diamond from Harry Winston. By the time of the King's overthrow in 1952, Winston had still not received payment for the two gems, but three years later an Egyptian government legal board entrusted with the disposal of the former royal assets, ruled in his favor. Nevertheless, several years of litigation were needed before he was able to reclaim the Star of the East from a safe-deposit box in Switzerland.
He was most popular in his early years and the nobility largely celebrated him. For example, during the accession of the young King Farouk, "the Abaza family had solicited palace authorities to permit the royal train to stop briefly in their village so that the king could partake of refreshments offered in a large, magnificently ornamented tent the family had erected in the train station."[5]
Farouk's accession initially was encouraging for the populace and nobility, due to his youth and Egyptian roots through his mother Nazli Sabri. However, the situation was not the same with some Egyptian politicians and elected government officials, with whom Farouk quarreled frequently, despite their loyalty in principle to his throne.
During the hardships of World War II, criticism was leveled at Farouk for his lavish lifestyle. His decision to not put out the lights at his palace in Alexandria, during a time when the city was blacked out because of German and Italian bombing, was deemed particularly offensive by Egyptian people. Due to the continuing British occupation of Egypt, many Egyptians, Farouk included, were positively disposed towards Germany and Italy, and despite the presence of British troops, Egypt remained officially neutral until the final year of the war. Consequently, the royal Italian servants of Farouk were not interned, and there is an unconfirmed story that Farouk told British Ambassador Sir Miles Lampson (who had an Italian wife), "I'll get rid of my Italians when you get rid of yours".[citation needed] In addition, Farouk was known for harbouring certain Axis sympathies and even sending a note to Hitler saying that an invasion would be welcome.[6] Farouk only declared war on the Axis Powers under heavy British pressure in 1945, long after the fighting in Egypt's Western Desert had ceased.
Farouk is also reported as having said "The whole world is in revolt. Soon there will be only five Kings left — the King of England, the King of Spades, the King of Clubs, the King of Hearts, and the King of Diamonds."[7]
[edit]Overthrow
Farouk was widely condemned for his corrupt and ineffectual governance, the continued British occupation, and the Egyptian army's failure to prevent the loss of 78% of Palestine to the newly formedState of Israel in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Public discontent against Farouk rose to new levels.[citation needed] In the CIA, the project to overthrow King Farouk, known internally known as "Project FF [Fat Fucker]",[8] was initiated by CIA operative Kermit Roosevelt, Jr. The CIA was disappointed in King Farouk for not improving the functionality and usefulness of his government,[9] and had actively supported the toppling of King Farouk by the Free Officers.[10] Finally, on 23 July 1952, the Free Officers Movement under Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser staged a military coup that launched the Egyptian Revolution of 1952. Farouk was forced to abdicate, and went into exile in Monaco and Italy where he lived for the rest of his life.[citation needed] Immediately following his abdication, Farouk's baby son, Ahmed Fuad was proclaimed King Fuad II, but for all intents and purposes Egypt was now governed by Naguib, Nasser and the Free Officers.[citation needed] On 18 June 1953, the revolutionary government formally abolished the monarchy, ending 150 years of the Muhammad Ali dynasty's rule, and Egypt was declared a republic.[citation needed]
The revolutionary government quickly moved to auction off the King's vast collection of trinkets and treasures.[citation needed] Among the more famous of his possessions was one of the rare 1933 Double Eagle coins, though the coin disappeared before it could be returned to the United States.[citation needed] He was also notorious for his collection of pornography.[11]
[edit]Exile and death
On his exile from Egypt, Farouk settled first in Monaco, and later in Rome, Italy. On 29 April 1958, the United Arab Republic issued rulings revoking theEgyptian citizenship of Farouk.[12] He was granted Monegasque citizenship in 1959 by his close friend Prince Rainier III.[13]
The blue-eyed Farouk was thin early in his reign, but later gained an enormous amount of weight. His taste for fine cuisine made him dangerously obese, weighing nearly 300 pounds (136 kg)—an acquaintance described him as "a stomach with a head". He died in the Ile de France restaurant in Rome, Italy on 18 March 1965. He collapsed and died at his dinner table following a characteristically heavy meal.[14] While some claim he was poisoned by Egyptian Intelligence,[15] no official autopsy was conducted on his body. His will stated that his burial place should be in the Al Rifa'i Mosque in Cairo, but the request was denied by the Egyptian government under Gamal Abdel Nasser, and he was going to be buried in Italy. King Faisal of Saudi Arabia stated he would be willing to have King Farouk buried in Saudi Arabia, upon which President Nasser agreed for the former monarch to be buried in Egypt, not in the Mosque of Al Rifai' but in the Ibrahim Pasha Burial Site.[citation needed]
[edit]Marriages and affairs
In addition to an affair with the British writer Barbara Skelton, among numerous others, Farouk was married twice, with a claim of a third marriage. His first wife was Safinaz Zulficar (1921–1988), the daughter of Youssef Zulficar Pasha. Safinaz was renamed Farida upon her marriage. They were married in 1938, and divorced in 1948, producing three daughters.
Farouk's second wife was a commoner, Narriman Sadek (1934–2005). They were married in 1951, and divorced in 1954, having only one child, the future KingFuad II.
While in exile in Italy, Farouk met Irma Capece Minutolo, an opera singer, who became his companion. In 2005, she claimed that she married the former King in 1957.[16]
.
Isma'il Pasha
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| Ismail Pasha | |
|---|---|
| Khedive of Egypt and Sudan | |
  | |
| Reign | January 19, 1863 - June 26, 1879 |
| Born | December 31, 1830 |
| Birthplace | Cairo |
| Died | March 2, 1895 (aged 64) |
| Place of death | Constantinople |
| Buried | Cairo |
| Predecessor | Said I |
| Successor | Tewfik Pasha |
| Dynasty | Muhammad Ali Dynasty |
| Father | Ibrahim Pasha |
| Mother | Hoshiar |
His philosophy can be glimpsed at in a statement that he made in 1879: "My country is no longer in Africa; we are now part of Europe. It is therefore natural for us to abandon our former ways and to adopt a new system adapted to our social conditions".
He also secured Ottoman, and international recognition as Khedive in preference to Wāli. However, Isma'il's policies placed Egypt and Sudan in severe debt, leading to the sale of the country's shares in the Suez Canal Company to the United Kingdom, and his ultimate toppling from power at British hands.
[edit] Family
Ismail, of Albanian descent, was born in Cairo at Al Musafir Khana Palace[1] being the second of the three sons of Ibrahim Pasha, and the grandson of Muhammad Ali. His mother was Hoshiar (Khushiyar), third wife of his father. She was reportedly a sister of Pertevniyal Valide Sultan (1812–1883). Pertevniyal was a wife of Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire and mother of Abdülaziz I.[2][3][4][5][edit] Youth and education
[edit] Khedive of Egypt
After the death of Said, Ismail was proclaimed Khedive on January 19, 1863, though the Ottoman Empire, and the other Great Powers recognised him only was Wāli. Like all Egyptian and Sudanese rulers since his grandfather Muhammad Ali Pasha, he claimed the higher title of Khedive, which the Ottoman Porte had consistently refused to sanction. However, in 1867, Isma'il succeeded in persuading the Ottoman Sultan Abdülaziz to grant a firman finally recognising him as Khedive in exchange for an increase in the tribute. Another firman changed the law of succession to direct descent from father to son rather than brother to brother, and a further decree in 1873 confirmed the virtual independence of the Khedivate of Egypt from the Porte.[edit] Reforms
Ismail launched vast schemes of internal reform on the scale of his grandfather, remodeling the customs system and the post office, stimulating commercial progress, creating a sugar industry, building palaces, entertaining lavishly and maintaining an opera and a theatre. He greatly expanded Cairo, building an entire new quarter of the city on its western edge modeled on Paris. Alexandria was also improved. He launched a vast railroad building project that saw Egypt and Sudan rise from having virtually none to the most railways per habitable kilometre of any nation in the world.
Ismail tried to reduce slave trading and extended Egypt's rule in Africa. In 1874 he annexed Darfur, but was prevented from expanding into Ethiopia after his army was repeatedly defeated by Emperor Yohannes IV, first at Gundat 16 November 1875, and again at Gura in March of the following year.
[edit] War with Ethiopia
Ismail dreamt of expanding his realm over the whole Nile including its diverse sources and over the whole African coast of the Red Sea. This, together with rumours about rich raw material and fertile soil, led Ismail to expansive policies directed against Ethiopia under the Emperor Yohannes IV. In 1865 the Ottoman Sublime Porte ceded the Ottoman Province of Habesh (with Massawa and Suakin at the Red Sea as the main cities of that province) to Ismail. This province, neighbor of Ethiopia, first consisted of a coastal strip only, but expanded subsequently inland into territory controlled by the Ethiopian ruler. Here Ismail occupied regions originally claimed by the Ottomans when they had established the province (eyaleti) of Habesh in the 16th century. New economically promising projects, like huge cotton plantations in the Barka delta, were started. In 1872 Bogos (with the city of Keren) was annexed by the governor of the new "Province of Eastern Sudan and the Red Sea Coast", Werner Munzinger Pasha. In October 1875 Ismail's army occupied the adjacent highlands of Hamasien, which were then tributary to the Ethiopian Emperor. In November this army was virtually annihilated during the battle of Dogali near the Mareb River. In March 1876 Ismail's army again suffered a dramatic defeat after an attack by Yohannes's army at Gura'. Ismail's son Hassan was captured by the Ethiopians and only released after a large ransom. This was followed by a long cold war, only finishing in 1884 with the Anglo-Egyptian-Ethiopian Hewett Treaty, when Bogos was given back to Ethiopia. The Red Sea Province created by Ismail and his governor Munzinger Pasha was taken over by the Italians shortly thereafter and became the territorial basis for the Colonia Eritrea (proclaimed in 1890).[edit] Suez Canal
[edit] Debts
These developments - especially the costly war with Ethiopia - left Egypt in deep debt to the European powers, and they used this position to wring concessions out of Ismail. One of the most unpopular among Egyptians and Sudanese was the new system of mixed courts, by which Europeans were tried by judges from their own states, rather than by Egyptian and Sudanese courts. But at length the inevitable financial crisis came. A national debt of over £100 million sterling (as opposed to three millions when he acceded to the throne) had been incurred by the Khedive, whose fundamental idea of liquidating his borrowings was to borrow at increased interest. The bond-holders became restive. Judgments were given against the Khedive in the international tribunals. When he could raise no more loans, he sold the Egyptian and Sudanese shares in the Suez Canal Company in 1875 to the British government for £ 3,976,582; this was immediately followed by the beginning of direct intervention by the Great Powers in Egypt and Sudan.In December 1875, Stephen Cave and John Stokes were sent out by the British government to inquire into the finances of Egypt,[6] and in April 1876 their report was published, advising that in view of the waste and extravagance it was necessary for foreign Powers to interfere in order to restore credit. The result was the establishment of the Caisse de la Dette. In October, George Goschen and Joubert made a further investigation, which resulted in the establishment of Anglo-French control over finances and the government. A further commission of inquiry by Major Baring (afterwards 1st Earl of Cromer) and others in 1878 culminated in Ismail making over his estates to the nation and accepting the position of a constitutional sovereign, with Nubar as premier, Charles Rivers Wilson as finance minister, and de Blignières as minister of public works.
King Mina
Encient times (3200 BC – 3780 BC).
Place the events of this story in the Old Testament, called the name of the scholars ofhistory (ancient times). It includes first and second families of the history of ancient Egypt. And King Mena hero of this story is the first king in the history of the First Dynasty, and is credited with uniting the country and push it to the runways of advancement and progress.
Was followed in the governance of the country several kings helped their efforts in strengthening the unity and the pillars of the new state, and most famous of thesekings: King (Aha), which means warrior, and the King (Jr.), who was known activismwar and interest in the arts, has followed in the government of King (button) and King(Smrecht). The kings of the Second Dynasty Vochehrhm King (Hotep Skhmuy) and (cocoa) and (Ntrimo) and (Schm PMI ®) and King (Khasekhem), has involved us all in the province on the border of Egypt from the incursions of Libyans and Nubians, alsocontributed to the strengthening of the unity of the country.
Was followed in the governance of the country several kings helped their efforts in strengthening the unity and the pillars of the new state, and most famous of thesekings: King (Aha), which means warrior, and the King (Jr.), who was known activismwar and interest in the arts, has followed in the government of King (button) and King(Smrecht). The kings of the Second Dynasty Vochehrhm King (Hotep Skhmuy) and (cocoa) and (Ntrimo) and (Schm PMI ®) and King (Khasekhem), has involved us all in the province on the border of Egypt from the incursions of Libyans and Nubians, alsocontributed to the strengthening of the unity of the country.
The story of King Mena
Time: 3200 before the birth of Christ, any more than five thousand years. Location: the king’s palace in the city of Mena (bending) near the “Abydos” (Balyana the current status of Sohag)
Sat King Mina on his throne one day was surrounded by princes of the provinces of southern Egypt, as well as the heads of the army and senior statesmen, and they took all of us chatted, that the King began by saying: I’m glad you Comrades has Altfvtm all around the throne, having prevailed among us harmony and took us peace, and went on to forever those difficult times that we spent on wars and hassle, even a thousand of God among our hearts and we are people of the south one nation, has Djaltamona belong to you, and you have put on my crown of Upper White, and then given me a royal name (Nadmr) the one who has become a note for me, and I meet this meeting I will be worthy of your trust, and I will work hard to complete the annexation of the country’s unity in the Nile Delta to the northern kingdom, until we become one country feared great regard.
Here, provided by Prince County a good and ask permission to say that this is our hope you, O leader, has Jitna We emirates Michahna, and the provinces of divergent, eating our senior to our young ones, and fret Qoana Daava, Vosaleht between us, and draw between our hearts, and we by the grace of God one nation, no wonder After that you made us a leader, and king of the provinces at all. And resumed after the commander asked for permission, saying:
We strongly God the Great, and the support of your army is great, and the sincerity of your people loyal, you will put God willing crown of Lower Red above your head in the near future smiled King delighted and said: Thank God and you, O leader of brave, but you as you watched the Red Crown by ??
Time: 3200 before the birth of Christ, any more than five thousand years. Location: the king’s palace in the city of Mena (bending) near the “Abydos” (Balyana the current status of Sohag)
Sat King Mina on his throne one day was surrounded by princes of the provinces of southern Egypt, as well as the heads of the army and senior statesmen, and they took all of us chatted, that the King began by saying: I’m glad you Comrades has Altfvtm all around the throne, having prevailed among us harmony and took us peace, and went on to forever those difficult times that we spent on wars and hassle, even a thousand of God among our hearts and we are people of the south one nation, has Djaltamona belong to you, and you have put on my crown of Upper White, and then given me a royal name (Nadmr) the one who has become a note for me, and I meet this meeting I will be worthy of your trust, and I will work hard to complete the annexation of the country’s unity in the Nile Delta to the northern kingdom, until we become one country feared great regard.
Here, provided by Prince County a good and ask permission to say that this is our hope you, O leader, has Jitna We emirates Michahna, and the provinces of divergent, eating our senior to our young ones, and fret Qoana Daava, Vosaleht between us, and draw between our hearts, and we by the grace of God one nation, no wonder After that you made us a leader, and king of the provinces at all. And resumed after the commander asked for permission, saying:
We strongly God the Great, and the support of your army is great, and the sincerity of your people loyal, you will put God willing crown of Lower Red above your head in the near future smiled King delighted and said: Thank God and you, O leader of brave, but you as you watched the Red Crown by ??
Kingdom of the North
Replied the commander, saying:
Yes, Moulay, I went last year to the Kingdom of the North to visit some relatives there, and I am appalled Ouhz to myself what I saw of the division among the people of the same country, and how the princes wrangling and fighting in secret and in public, and to capture power was false leadership prince of whom claims (conscious Shi ), or as they call it in some cases (informer), he was a governor of the province of the hook, then took for himself the titles of ownership, and put on his head, the Red Crown, who was in the form of mortar red, surmounted by the back of the rod vertical instilling in him when having everything promises to slash ends wrap spiral , in contrast to our crown, which resembles white cylindrical white helmet, which is narrow at its summit to end swollen ball.
They thought I Moulay protection of the goddess in the form of a snake (Pray) called and Azet red, and have also taken from the papyrus plant a slogan for them, an imitation of us when we took of the lotus plant a slogan for us here in the south, has taken the King adoptee in the north, the title of the bee, which represents the North , imitation of Bjellaltkm when you would have the reed plant, which represents the south. The capital city is (Po) in the territory of Bhutto (at the current center of Tel Lafraain Desouk).
When it was over the leader of his interest was evident on the face of the King (MENA) and commented saying:
The valuable information you great leader, but you did not tell us about the form of government there, and a sense of the people towards their rulers oppressors.Replied the commander, saying: The Kingdom of the Delta in the north, O Moulay still divided into a number of counties (districts), as was the case we have by the rule of Your Majesty, and governs all county prince, and princes disputed authority with them, so spread the band and there was injustice and thrown chaos uncle corruption throughout the country.
When he sensed the people injustice rulers, taken from the complaint look up to us to save him, and I think I Moulay that the time has come, because the lead up to save from suffering brothers to us in the north, the long-awaited day of salvation, and then will check on your hands preferred the Union of the country, and standardize management, and the removal of divide them, to assist your army valiant, which has become ready, having completed his strengths accession flower of youth the south, after he had been trained on the latest martial arts, and provide them with the strongest weapons and gear, from the spears and request and bows and arrows, and lack the O Moulay only signal of Your Majesty’s crusade lions robbers, breaking the corrupt rule in the north, raising the burden of their brethren the yoke of injustice and tyranny, and simplifying Sultank on the country of the Delta in the north, and put on your head, the crown joint, so join us in the Kingdom of the Delta, which is important for the country as head of the body.
Replied the commander, saying:
Yes, Moulay, I went last year to the Kingdom of the North to visit some relatives there, and I am appalled Ouhz to myself what I saw of the division among the people of the same country, and how the princes wrangling and fighting in secret and in public, and to capture power was false leadership prince of whom claims (conscious Shi ), or as they call it in some cases (informer), he was a governor of the province of the hook, then took for himself the titles of ownership, and put on his head, the Red Crown, who was in the form of mortar red, surmounted by the back of the rod vertical instilling in him when having everything promises to slash ends wrap spiral , in contrast to our crown, which resembles white cylindrical white helmet, which is narrow at its summit to end swollen ball.
They thought I Moulay protection of the goddess in the form of a snake (Pray) called and Azet red, and have also taken from the papyrus plant a slogan for them, an imitation of us when we took of the lotus plant a slogan for us here in the south, has taken the King adoptee in the north, the title of the bee, which represents the North , imitation of Bjellaltkm when you would have the reed plant, which represents the south. The capital city is (Po) in the territory of Bhutto (at the current center of Tel Lafraain Desouk).
When it was over the leader of his interest was evident on the face of the King (MENA) and commented saying:
The valuable information you great leader, but you did not tell us about the form of government there, and a sense of the people towards their rulers oppressors.Replied the commander, saying: The Kingdom of the Delta in the north, O Moulay still divided into a number of counties (districts), as was the case we have by the rule of Your Majesty, and governs all county prince, and princes disputed authority with them, so spread the band and there was injustice and thrown chaos uncle corruption throughout the country.
When he sensed the people injustice rulers, taken from the complaint look up to us to save him, and I think I Moulay that the time has come, because the lead up to save from suffering brothers to us in the north, the long-awaited day of salvation, and then will check on your hands preferred the Union of the country, and standardize management, and the removal of divide them, to assist your army valiant, which has become ready, having completed his strengths accession flower of youth the south, after he had been trained on the latest martial arts, and provide them with the strongest weapons and gear, from the spears and request and bows and arrows, and lack the O Moulay only signal of Your Majesty’s crusade lions robbers, breaking the corrupt rule in the north, raising the burden of their brethren the yoke of injustice and tyranny, and simplifying Sultank on the country of the Delta in the north, and put on your head, the crown joint, so join us in the Kingdom of the Delta, which is important for the country as head of the body.
Lesson from the past
Smiled King Menes in pleasure, and showed signs of satisfaction on his face bright,then drew his speech to the gathering rally around him: this is the truth, O princes and commanders, I did not doubt for one moment in the strength of armies, andlighted his determination, and bravery of his officers and soldiers, and the adequacy of their training, and the perfection of their weapons and their equipment, but I I wanted to make sure every step Okhtoha, and I do everything his account, and totake advantage of the lessons of the past, it occurs to me what happened to my grandfather the great scorpion King, who tried by me unite the country, prepared agreat army, and led him to the north, and defeated already in some locations , and took over many of the provinces, but died before taking control of the Delta entiregravely band to the country, but I am determined will of the gods that the victory iscrucial this time, and that the Union destruction is our goal, and will tell you soon a date for moving our heroic in the way to the holy war, to integrate the land good andour beloved country.
Smiled King Menes in pleasure, and showed signs of satisfaction on his face bright,then drew his speech to the gathering rally around him: this is the truth, O princes and commanders, I did not doubt for one moment in the strength of armies, andlighted his determination, and bravery of his officers and soldiers, and the adequacy of their training, and the perfection of their weapons and their equipment, but I I wanted to make sure every step Okhtoha, and I do everything his account, and totake advantage of the lessons of the past, it occurs to me what happened to my grandfather the great scorpion King, who tried by me unite the country, prepared agreat army, and led him to the north, and defeated already in some locations , and took over many of the provinces, but died before taking control of the Delta entiregravely band to the country, but I am determined will of the gods that the victory iscrucial this time, and that the Union destruction is our goal, and will tell you soon a date for moving our heroic in the way to the holy war, to integrate the land good andour beloved country.
Invasion of the territory of the North
Did not invalidate it for several months until he was ready, and in the promised day came out of this army from the capital, and she attended his classes and began his weapons in the hands of his soldiers brave, led by flag bearers and Dharbo drums Nafajo trumpets, and was King Mena is on the head of his army in the greatness and Jalal , and dressed in the war, was carried in his hand an ax heavy shine of death in the blade, as he is in his hand other greetings of the people who gathered on both sides of the road from early morning to greet captain hero, and his army victorious, which came out Juhavlh to Akram and very noble purpose, to cleanseland north of corruption, and liberate its people from the oppression of the rulers, and unite the two parts of the valley in the south and north of a superpower dominated system, and at peace.
When he became the army outside the city, dividing it into the king ordered the two divisions, one of the Nile installed in private boats had been prepared by them, while the other goes the band alignment in the Nile and within sight of the first, and turned all the way north to the Kingdom of the Delta.
Once the news arrived the arrival of the army to the northern rulers, even flipped their alarm, they were afraid, and met for the schools position despite their rivalry and conflict, and put the remnants of their armies under the command of (informer), Prince County hook, which is faster at the head of this army to meet the king, “Mina”at the border between the two kingdoms.
Did not invalidate it for several months until he was ready, and in the promised day came out of this army from the capital, and she attended his classes and began his weapons in the hands of his soldiers brave, led by flag bearers and Dharbo drums Nafajo trumpets, and was King Mena is on the head of his army in the greatness and Jalal , and dressed in the war, was carried in his hand an ax heavy shine of death in the blade, as he is in his hand other greetings of the people who gathered on both sides of the road from early morning to greet captain hero, and his army victorious, which came out Juhavlh to Akram and very noble purpose, to cleanseland north of corruption, and liberate its people from the oppression of the rulers, and unite the two parts of the valley in the south and north of a superpower dominated system, and at peace.
When he became the army outside the city, dividing it into the king ordered the two divisions, one of the Nile installed in private boats had been prepared by them, while the other goes the band alignment in the Nile and within sight of the first, and turned all the way north to the Kingdom of the Delta.
Once the news arrived the arrival of the army to the northern rulers, even flipped their alarm, they were afraid, and met for the schools position despite their rivalry and conflict, and put the remnants of their armies under the command of (informer), Prince County hook, which is faster at the head of this army to meet the king, “Mina”at the border between the two kingdoms.
The Battle
When he met the upper hand, ordered King Mena soldiers attack, while he was in the forefront carrying a shield heavy with his left hand, and lifted his right hand ax largewas distributed by the death of his enemies, and rushed to his officers and soldiersbehind him, shouting cries of war, has begun in their hands spears and Ksém, evenpulled the panic in the ranks of the northern army, which took retreats without thesystem, then the construction of King Menes way through his enemies, until he wastheir boss (informer), and hit him a blow knocked his weapon, so he bowed on his knees asking for mercy, Vomskh King forever executed, and hit him a blow BltthOjhzat of it. No sooner had the enemy soldiers and officers, see the death of their leader, fled so do not bend on something, and so defeated the enemy, and defeatedsouthern army, and opened up the road in front of him to subdue the regions of theDelta in a great country united.
When he met the upper hand, ordered King Mena soldiers attack, while he was in the forefront carrying a shield heavy with his left hand, and lifted his right hand ax largewas distributed by the death of his enemies, and rushed to his officers and soldiersbehind him, shouting cries of war, has begun in their hands spears and Ksém, evenpulled the panic in the ranks of the northern army, which took retreats without thesystem, then the construction of King Menes way through his enemies, until he wastheir boss (informer), and hit him a blow knocked his weapon, so he bowed on his knees asking for mercy, Vomskh King forever executed, and hit him a blow BltthOjhzat of it. No sooner had the enemy soldiers and officers, see the death of their leader, fled so do not bend on something, and so defeated the enemy, and defeatedsouthern army, and opened up the road in front of him to subdue the regions of theDelta in a great country united.
Union of the Two Countries
So check the hope of victory, King Mena, Egypt became one country is strong, withone army and one governor, and the combined length of the tar after the band, and joined the two peoples after a long dimensions. Then the king wanted Mina to satisfythe people of the north and remove from themselves the bitterness of defeat, he ordered that the things in each region according to the traditions and habits, and was allocated to each of the two countries and the ministry and independent department, one for the north and the other to the south, while the King is head of his own systemof government and run from his palace.
King then took Mina after that visit territories territories territories, was isolated rulers, oppressors and appoint other people of the Territories, and was listening to his ownpeople’s demands and work to achieve it, was welcomed wherever he meets.
So check the hope of victory, King Mena, Egypt became one country is strong, withone army and one governor, and the combined length of the tar after the band, and joined the two peoples after a long dimensions. Then the king wanted Mina to satisfythe people of the north and remove from themselves the bitterness of defeat, he ordered that the things in each region according to the traditions and habits, and was allocated to each of the two countries and the ministry and independent department, one for the north and the other to the south, while the King is head of his own systemof government and run from his palace.
King then took Mina after that visit territories territories territories, was isolated rulers, oppressors and appoint other people of the Territories, and was listening to his ownpeople’s demands and work to achieve it, was welcomed wherever he meets.
Visit the province of Sais
In the traveler, and arrived to roam the county, “Sais,” a fifth province in the Lower, and the prince of the dynasty pharaohs of ancient Egypt, a good man just loved wise.
The arrival of King Menes of the province of the happiest days, as people came outfor a reel of his father to receive the hero light savior of the country and unifiedterritory, and served the people of the night in the streets dancing and singing in thewaiting honoring King Visitor, and was headed by the governor and great province.
No sooner had the King’s convoy close to the city until the cheers rose to the sky,mixed with sounds of music and the singing of the people.
The emir “Sais” hello from the King, calling him to the palace of hospitality, before the King, thanking his call, and then headed the procession to the palace, which ismaking its way among the crowds of people eager Acclaimer joy to see.
In the traveler, and arrived to roam the county, “Sais,” a fifth province in the Lower, and the prince of the dynasty pharaohs of ancient Egypt, a good man just loved wise.
The arrival of King Menes of the province of the happiest days, as people came outfor a reel of his father to receive the hero light savior of the country and unifiedterritory, and served the people of the night in the streets dancing and singing in thewaiting honoring King Visitor, and was headed by the governor and great province.
No sooner had the King’s convoy close to the city until the cheers rose to the sky,mixed with sounds of music and the singing of the people.
The emir “Sais” hello from the King, calling him to the palace of hospitality, before the King, thanking his call, and then headed the procession to the palace, which ismaking its way among the crowds of people eager Acclaimer joy to see.
Marriage of King Mena
Having rested King Mena little in his home, and I change his clothes, he calledPrince ”Sais” for lunch at a table by a whale delicious types of food and drink, and sat in the king happy dealing with his lunch delicious, while I took the music playingOhjy melodies and fresher melodies, and dedication governor of Sais in the honorthe king, even make his children Benin and daughters of their own for his serviceduring eating, which warmed his heart and explain the chest, and was among the girls, “Sais” princess called “Spring Hotep” It was a great deal of the beauty of creation and of creation, as it was characterized by gracefully much and torturedmodern and agility, making the King admired by Mina at first sight, and wished to be his wife until he was pleased the people of the north after being defeated by marrying one of Omirathm, and make it a destination to satisfy the pride of ownership and ease of the them.
The next day the King asked the Governor Mina Sayes this hand of his daughter to be his wife, he agreed the ruling in the pleasure and gratitude for this great honor, which is bestowed by the king victorious.
Once the king to declare the news of his marriage to Princess ”Sais”, until it was joythroughout the country, and set the parameters of adornment, and after several dayswas marriage of King in his home, where he spent by a full month has passed his days of joy and happiness and then, thinking of return to the old capital of his property.
Having rested King Mena little in his home, and I change his clothes, he calledPrince ”Sais” for lunch at a table by a whale delicious types of food and drink, and sat in the king happy dealing with his lunch delicious, while I took the music playingOhjy melodies and fresher melodies, and dedication governor of Sais in the honorthe king, even make his children Benin and daughters of their own for his serviceduring eating, which warmed his heart and explain the chest, and was among the girls, “Sais” princess called “Spring Hotep” It was a great deal of the beauty of creation and of creation, as it was characterized by gracefully much and torturedmodern and agility, making the King admired by Mina at first sight, and wished to be his wife until he was pleased the people of the north after being defeated by marrying one of Omirathm, and make it a destination to satisfy the pride of ownership and ease of the them.
The next day the King asked the Governor Mina Sayes this hand of his daughter to be his wife, he agreed the ruling in the pleasure and gratitude for this great honor, which is bestowed by the king victorious.
Once the king to declare the news of his marriage to Princess ”Sais”, until it was joythroughout the country, and set the parameters of adornment, and after several dayswas marriage of King in his home, where he spent by a full month has passed his days of joy and happiness and then, thinking of return to the old capital of his property.
City of Memphis
But the King Mina saw caution before leaving the land of the north, leaving behind ita strong garrison in a safe place, was beaten at the hands of the rebels spoilers for fear of their revolt, he decided to create a new city to be located somewhere in the middle between the two kingdoms, and can make it a stronghold of his soldiers, and the base to his army, comes to her whenever they wanted to visit the territory ofLower, and called for the senior engineers to be consulted in the selection of a suitable site has, after study of the order, signed their choice on the place of the city of “Memphis,” now called (dead hostage) has necessitated the establishment of thiscity transfer the Nile water surging to north to the course of the last, the branch now known as the (Bahr Youssef) vector to the oasis of Fayoum, by building a dam greaton the course of the river south of the city, “Wasti,” The consequent failure of a space of land used to build the city of “Memphis” and was first built, including Castlewarfare surrounded by trenches of water on every side except the south, and namedKing Mina castle white, and then returned Vsmaha ”of Navarre,” a beautiful harbor, and this name derived the word “Memphis”, which is dubbed “Memphis” and was the first capital of the Government of the United later on.
But the King Mina saw caution before leaving the land of the north, leaving behind ita strong garrison in a safe place, was beaten at the hands of the rebels spoilers for fear of their revolt, he decided to create a new city to be located somewhere in the middle between the two kingdoms, and can make it a stronghold of his soldiers, and the base to his army, comes to her whenever they wanted to visit the territory ofLower, and called for the senior engineers to be consulted in the selection of a suitable site has, after study of the order, signed their choice on the place of the city of “Memphis,” now called (dead hostage) has necessitated the establishment of thiscity transfer the Nile water surging to north to the course of the last, the branch now known as the (Bahr Youssef) vector to the oasis of Fayoum, by building a dam greaton the course of the river south of the city, “Wasti,” The consequent failure of a space of land used to build the city of “Memphis” and was first built, including Castlewarfare surrounded by trenches of water on every side except the south, and namedKing Mina castle white, and then returned Vsmaha ”of Navarre,” a beautiful harbor, and this name derived the word “Memphis”, which is dubbed “Memphis” and was the first capital of the Government of the United later on.
Return of the King to the south
As sure King Mena to build his castle the new, and security has been restored in the country, he returned with his wife to the capital of the wisdom of the old, and entered the city (bend) in the parade is full of the entry part of the victors, and left the city en masse to receive her son’s bar, which has the country’s unity, and returned to theboundaries of the Security and peace of mind, and in order just to his palace, and sat in the throne room receives the delegations of well-wishers, and carried him symbolic gifts to express their sincere loyalty and Ovaúhm and love, while the share of allcongratulations for joy and pleasure, if the artist man lead to the king, carrying theplate artesian beautiful shape, requesting him to accept a gift symbolic modest,thanked him for his loyalty to the king, saying: O great artist is the meaning of the inscriptions painted on the wonderful gift?
As sure King Mena to build his castle the new, and security has been restored in the country, he returned with his wife to the capital of the wisdom of the old, and entered the city (bend) in the parade is full of the entry part of the victors, and left the city en masse to receive her son’s bar, which has the country’s unity, and returned to theboundaries of the Security and peace of mind, and in order just to his palace, and sat in the throne room receives the delegations of well-wishers, and carried him symbolic gifts to express their sincere loyalty and Ovaúhm and love, while the share of allcongratulations for joy and pleasure, if the artist man lead to the king, carrying theplate artesian beautiful shape, requesting him to accept a gift symbolic modest,thanked him for his loyalty to the king, saying: O great artist is the meaning of the inscriptions painted on the wonderful gift?
Panel Nadmr
He said the artist immediately: these, my lord Panel, which is used to crush kohl which is placed in the eye, has been recorded by the highest high relief the name of Your Majesty’s Royal, which is “Nadmr” hieroglyphs between my two cows, and I went to the Decree on her face registering a victory Majesty on your enemies , For a two-sided triangle of Your Majesty and standing on your head crown of Upper and before you enemy kneeling, and you Tdharbonh on the head pin fight you, and a triangle before you falcon (Horus) was brought to you prisoners of the Delta, while the other side was represented by the Majesty of wearing the crown of Lower Red , and thus symbolized the unification of the two kingdoms, while the conduct before the Majesty of four flag bearers followed by a Minister, and before those ten prisoners beheaded and placed between their feet, and at the bottom of this face has represented a bull as a symbol of the power inherent in the Majesty, foot feet enemy lay, and destroy the cornea some of the Surat city surmounted by balconies, and that means full control of Your Majesty.
And accept the King a gift great artist thanking pleased, and commended for his outstanding work and the idea is creative highest praise, and ordered his award generous, as is that you save the painting hall throne revival of art, and the anniversary of the unification of the two countries, and good fortune to remain reserved until recently found near the godmother buried (Balyana), which is now before the role the Egyptian Museum, the upper chamber No. 42
He said the artist immediately: these, my lord Panel, which is used to crush kohl which is placed in the eye, has been recorded by the highest high relief the name of Your Majesty’s Royal, which is “Nadmr” hieroglyphs between my two cows, and I went to the Decree on her face registering a victory Majesty on your enemies , For a two-sided triangle of Your Majesty and standing on your head crown of Upper and before you enemy kneeling, and you Tdharbonh on the head pin fight you, and a triangle before you falcon (Horus) was brought to you prisoners of the Delta, while the other side was represented by the Majesty of wearing the crown of Lower Red , and thus symbolized the unification of the two kingdoms, while the conduct before the Majesty of four flag bearers followed by a Minister, and before those ten prisoners beheaded and placed between their feet, and at the bottom of this face has represented a bull as a symbol of the power inherent in the Majesty, foot feet enemy lay, and destroy the cornea some of the Surat city surmounted by balconies, and that means full control of Your Majesty.
And accept the King a gift great artist thanking pleased, and commended for his outstanding work and the idea is creative highest praise, and ordered his award generous, as is that you save the painting hall throne revival of art, and the anniversary of the unification of the two countries, and good fortune to remain reserved until recently found near the godmother buried (Balyana), which is now before the role the Egyptian Museum, the upper chamber No. 42
Holiday of Love
The rule of King Menes Egypt for sixty-two years, during which he fought against the enemies of the country of the Libyans and Nubians, and their response Midhoren, after the battles of his victory spread justice and peace throughout the country, and united her band, which made the Egyptians are dedicated to their love for him.
When he reached his thirty years, people raced in the celebration of this festival, which they called rejoicing love, or the feast of his thirties. The total of the love people have for their king to accept selected to change the tradition to take off the King when he reaches his thirtieth year, so do not rule the country only youth, but the fulfillment of them Menm beloved “Mina” the whole people saw the renewal of his sentence, that circumvented the old traditions, and said that could be Bahaaúhm for this holiday to renew their young king, to bring a new era for them and sentenced luck happy.
Thus established parameters weddings around the country, and moved King Mena from the capital of his property to the city of Memphis, where it was ceremony of the feast, that came out in the morning from his palace wearing a clothes special, is a wrapper of white linen covers all his body from the neck to the feet, so that does not appear him only with his hands, and took his place in the wooden stretcher under the umbrella of obscure his heat of the sun, and took the seats a wonderful decoration, and that settled the King in its even pointed out his hand, came to him some of his sons young men and carried the stretcher on their shoulders, and this was marked the conduct of royal procession on the way to the temple, where the official ceremony is held.
The rule of King Menes Egypt for sixty-two years, during which he fought against the enemies of the country of the Libyans and Nubians, and their response Midhoren, after the battles of his victory spread justice and peace throughout the country, and united her band, which made the Egyptians are dedicated to their love for him.
When he reached his thirty years, people raced in the celebration of this festival, which they called rejoicing love, or the feast of his thirties. The total of the love people have for their king to accept selected to change the tradition to take off the King when he reaches his thirtieth year, so do not rule the country only youth, but the fulfillment of them Menm beloved “Mina” the whole people saw the renewal of his sentence, that circumvented the old traditions, and said that could be Bahaaúhm for this holiday to renew their young king, to bring a new era for them and sentenced luck happy.
Thus established parameters weddings around the country, and moved King Mena from the capital of his property to the city of Memphis, where it was ceremony of the feast, that came out in the morning from his palace wearing a clothes special, is a wrapper of white linen covers all his body from the neck to the feet, so that does not appear him only with his hands, and took his place in the wooden stretcher under the umbrella of obscure his heat of the sun, and took the seats a wonderful decoration, and that settled the King in its even pointed out his hand, came to him some of his sons young men and carried the stretcher on their shoulders, and this was marked the conduct of royal procession on the way to the temple, where the official ceremony is held.
The death of the King
The King took the opportunity to Mina a visit to the city of “Memphis” and determination to spend some time practicing his favorite hobby of hunting birds and beasts and fish in the jungles of the Delta near Memphis.
In a few days Alsahih beautiful, the King took some of his bodyguards and a group of close friends, and went out for fishing and hunting as usual, and were swayed by the large number of fishing Vtoglua in the bush, and away the King, “Mina” for his friends alone. It follows a predatory sea horses.
The King bridges brave, despite his age, he went close to the prey and wielding his spear, trying to kill her with one blow, but it missed its target, Vahjm by the Persians brutality and ferocity, killing him for his watch, having cried the king cry terrible responded to reverberate between the aspects of the guard, hurried Guard and friends to the scene , but after that it was too late, but they have to kill seahorse, and then moved the body of the king to his palace in the city of “Memphis,” where the priests mummified the body and shrouding.
The process took more than seventy days, and then put the body in the sarcophagus transported in a solemn ceremony to one of the ships moored in the port, which sailed its just been to the capital of the king in the south, and when I got the body to the city to carry priests to the temple, where he met the people sad to bid farewell to his beloved hero and the great final farewell.
Then moved the corpse in Taputha Stone on the Crawler property to the cemetery near the capital, when the “Abydos”, where it was put in the grave prepared by the King himself before, between the hymns the priests and the wails of women and grief the people who were dying hero victorious irreplaceable, and governor of a great re-the country’s unity , and for the nation’s glory, and the dissemination of its parts between the security and peace …
The King took the opportunity to Mina a visit to the city of “Memphis” and determination to spend some time practicing his favorite hobby of hunting birds and beasts and fish in the jungles of the Delta near Memphis.
In a few days Alsahih beautiful, the King took some of his bodyguards and a group of close friends, and went out for fishing and hunting as usual, and were swayed by the large number of fishing Vtoglua in the bush, and away the King, “Mina” for his friends alone. It follows a predatory sea horses.
The King bridges brave, despite his age, he went close to the prey and wielding his spear, trying to kill her with one blow, but it missed its target, Vahjm by the Persians brutality and ferocity, killing him for his watch, having cried the king cry terrible responded to reverberate between the aspects of the guard, hurried Guard and friends to the scene , but after that it was too late, but they have to kill seahorse, and then moved the body of the king to his palace in the city of “Memphis,” where the priests mummified the body and shrouding.
The process took more than seventy days, and then put the body in the sarcophagus transported in a solemn ceremony to one of the ships moored in the port, which sailed its just been to the capital of the king in the south, and when I got the body to the city to carry priests to the temple, where he met the people sad to bid farewell to his beloved hero and the great final farewell.
Then moved the corpse in Taputha Stone on the Crawler property to the cemetery near the capital, when the “Abydos”, where it was put in the grave prepared by the King himself before, between the hymns the priests and the wails of women and grief the people who were dying hero victorious irreplaceable, and governor of a great re-the country’s unity , and for the nation’s glory, and the dissemination of its parts between the security and peace …
King Ramsis II
"Ramses II" redirects here. For the armored vehicle, see Ramses II tank.
| Ramesses II | |
|---|---|
| Ramesses the Great | |
 Ramesses II: one of four external seated statues at Abu Simbel | |
| Pharaoh of Egypt | |
| Reign | 1279–1213 BC, 19th Dynasty |
| Predecessor | Seti I |
| Successor | Merneptah |
| Consort(s) | Nefertari, Isetnofret, Maathorneferure, Meritamen, Bintanath, Nebettawy, Henutmire |
| Children | Amun-her-khepsef Prince Ramesses Pareherwenemef Khaemweset Merneptah Meryatum Bintanath Meritamen Nebettawy See also: List of children of Ramesses II |
| Father | Seti I |
| Mother | Queen Tuya |
| Born | c. 1300s BC |
| Died | 1213 BC |
| Burial | KV7 |
| Monuments | Abu Simbel, Abydos,[3] Ramesseum, Luxor and Karnak temples[4] |
Ramesses II (c. 1303 BC – July or August 1213 BC; Egyptian: *Riʻmīsisu, alternatively transcribed as Rameses 
/ˈræməsiːz/[5] and Ramses /ˈræmsiːz/ or /ˈræmziːz/),[6] referred to as Ramesses the Great, was the third Egyptian pharaoh (reigned 1279 BC – 1213 BC) of the Nineteenth dynasty. He is often regarded as the greatest, most celebrated, and most powerful pharaoh of the Egyptian Empire.[7] His successors and later Egyptians called him the "Great Ancestor". Ramesses II led several military expeditions into the Levant, re-asserting Egyptian control over Canaan. He also led expeditions to the south, into Nubia, commemorated in inscriptions at Beit el-Wali and Gerf Hussein.
/ˈræməsiːz/[5] and Ramses /ˈræmsiːz/ or /ˈræmziːz/),[6] referred to as Ramesses the Great, was the third Egyptian pharaoh (reigned 1279 BC – 1213 BC) of the Nineteenth dynasty. He is often regarded as the greatest, most celebrated, and most powerful pharaoh of the Egyptian Empire.[7] His successors and later Egyptians called him the "Great Ancestor". Ramesses II led several military expeditions into the Levant, re-asserting Egyptian control over Canaan. He also led expeditions to the south, into Nubia, commemorated in inscriptions at Beit el-Wali and Gerf Hussein.
At age fourteen, Ramesses was appointed Prince Regent by his father Seti I.[7] He is believed to have taken the throne in his late teens and is known to have ruled Egypt from 1279 BC to 1213 BC[8] for 66 years and 2 months, according to both Manetho and Egypt's contemporary historical records. He was once said to have lived to be 99 years old, but it is more likely that he died in his 90th or 91st year. If he became Pharaoh in 1279 BC as most Egyptologists today believe, he would have assumed the throne on May 31, 1279 BC, based on his known accession date of III Shemu day 27.[9][10] Ramesses II celebrated an unprecedented 14 sed festivals (the first held after thirty years of a pharaoh's reign, and then every three years) during his reign—more than any other pharaoh.[11] On his death, he was buried in a tomb in the Valley of the Kings;[12] his body was later moved to a royal cache where it was discovered in 1881, and is now on display in the Cairo Museum.[13]
The early part of his reign was focused on building cities, temples and monuments. He established the city of Pi-Ramesses in the Nile Delta as his new capital and main base for his campaigns in Syria. This city was built on the remains of the city of Avaris, the capital of the Hyksos when they took over, and was the location of the main Temple of Set. He is also known as Ozymandias in the Greek sources[14], from a transliteration into Greek of a part of Ramesses's throne name, Usermaatre Setepenre, "Ra's mighty truth, chosen of Ra".[15]
Campaigns and battles
Early in his life, Ramesses II embarked on numerous campaigns to return previously held territories back from Nubian and Hittite hands and to secure Egypt's borders. He was also responsible for suppressing some Nubian revolts and carrying out a campaign in Libya. Although the famous Battle of Kadesh often dominates the scholarly view of Ramesses II's military prowess and power, he nevertheless enjoyed more than a few outright victories over the enemies of Egypt. During Ramesses II's reign, the Egyptian army is estimated to have totaled about 100,000 men; a formidable force that he used to strengthen Egyptian influence.[16]
Battle against Sherden sea pirates
In his second year, Ramesses II decisively defeated the Shardana or Sherden sea pirates who were wreaking havoc along Egypt's Mediterranean coast by attacking cargo-laden vessels travelling the sea routes to Egypt.[17] The Sherden people probably came from the coast of Ionia or possibly south-west Turkey. Ramesses posted troops and ships at strategic points along the coast and patiently allowed the pirates to attack their prey before skillfully catching them by surprise in a sea battle and capturing them all in a single action.[18] A stele from Tanis speaks of their having come "in their war-ships from the midst of the sea, and none were able to stand before them". There must have been a naval battle somewhere near the mouth of the Nile, as shortly afterwards many Sherden are seen in the Pharaoh's body-guard where they are conspicuous by their horned helmets with a ball projecting from the middle, their round shields and the great Naue II swords with which they are depicted in inscriptions of the Battle of Kadesh.[19] In that sea battle, together with the Shardana, the pharaoh also defeated the Lukka (L'kkw, possibly the later Lycians), and the Šqrsšw (Shekelesh) peoples.
First Syrian campaign
The immediate antecedents to the Battle of Kadesh were the early campaigns of Ramesses II into Canaan and Palestine. His first campaign seems to have taken place in the fourth year of his reign and was commemorated by the erection of a stele near modern Beirut. The inscription is almost totally illegible due to weathering. His records tell us that he was forced to fight a Palestinian prince who was mortally wounded by an Egyptian archer, and whose army was subsequently routed. Ramesses carried off the princes of Palestine as live prisoners to Egypt. Ramesses then plundered the chiefs of the Asiatics in their own lands, returning every year to his headquarters at Riblah to exact tribute. In the fourth year of his reign, he captured the Hittite vassal state of Amurru during his campaign in Syria.[20]
Second Syrian campaign
Further information: Battle of Kadesh
The Battle of Kadesh in his fifth regnal year was the climactic engagement in a campaign that Ramesses fought in Syria, against the resurgent Hittite forces of Muwatallis. The pharaoh wanted a victory at Kadesh both to expand Egypt's frontiers into Syria and to emulate his father Seti I's triumphal entry into the city just a decade or so earlier. He also constructed his new capital, Pi-Ramesses where he built factories to manufacture weapons, chariots, and shields. Of course, they followed his wishes and manufactured some 1,000 weapons in a week, about 250 chariots in 2 weeks, and 1,000 shields in a week and a half. After these preparations, Ramesses moved to attack territory in the Levant which belonged to a more substantial enemy than any he had ever faced before: the Hittite Empire.[21]
Although Ramesses's forces were caught in a Hittite ambush and outnumbered at Kadesh, the pharaoh fought the battle to a stalemate and returned home a hero. Ramesses II's forces suffered major losses particularly among the 'Ra' division which was routed by the initial charge of the Hittite chariots during the battle. Once back in Egypt, Ramesses proclaimed that he had won a great victory.[22] He had amazed everybody by almost winning a lost battle. The Battle of Kadesh was a personal triumph for Ramesses, as after blundering into a devastating Hittite ambush, the young king courageously rallied his scattered troops to fight on the battlefield while escaping death or capture. Still, many historians regard the battle as a strategic defeat for the Egyptians as they were unable to occupy the city or territory around Kadesh. Ramesses decorated his monuments with reliefs and inscriptions describing the campaign as a whole, and the battle in particular as a major victory. Inscriptions of his victory decorate the Ramesseum,[23] Abydos, Karnak, Luxor and Abu Simbel. For example, on the temple walls of Luxor the near catastrophe was turned into an act of heroism:
His majesty slaughtered the armed forces of the Hittites in their entirety, their great rulers and all their brothers ... their infantry and chariot troops fell prostrate, one on top of the other. His majesty killed them ... and they lay stretched out in front of their horses. But his majesty was alone, nobody accompanied him ...[24]
Third Syrian campaign
Egypt's sphere of influence was now restricted to Canaan while Syria fell into Hittite hands. Canaanite princes, seemingly influenced by the Egyptian incapacity to impose their will, and goaded on by the Hittites, began revolts against Egypt. In the seventh year of his reign, Ramesses II returned to Syria once again. This time he proved more successful against his Hittite foes. During this campaign he split his army into two forces. One was led by his son, Amun-her-khepeshef, and it chased warriors of the Šhasu tribes across the Negev as far as the Dead Sea, and captured Edom-Seir. It then marched on to capture Moab. The other force, led by Ramesses, attacked Jerusalem and Jericho. He, too, then entered Moab, where he rejoined his son. The reunited army then marched on Hesbon, Damascus, on to Kumidi, and finally recaptured Upi, reestablishing Egypt's former sphere of influence.[25]
Later campaigns in Syria
Ramesses extended his military successes in his eighth and ninth years. He crossed the Dog River (Nahr el-Kelb) and pushed north into Amurru. His armies managed to march as far north as Dapur,[26] where he erected a statue of himself. The Egyptian pharaoh thus found himself in northern Amurru, well past Kadesh, in Tunip, where no Egyptian soldier had been seen since the time of Thutmose III almost 120 years earlier. He laid siege to the city before capturing it. His victory proved to be ephemeral. In year nine, Ramesses erected a stele at Beth Shean. After having reasserted his power over Canaan, Ramesses led his army north. A mostly illegible stele near Beirut, which appears to be dated to the king's second year, was probably set up there in his tenth.[27] The thin strip of territory pinched between Amurru and Kadesh did not make for a stable possession. Within a year, they had returned to the Hittite fold, so that Ramesses had to march against Dapur once more in his tenth year. This time he claimed to have fought the battle without even bothering to put on his corslet until two hours after the fighting began. Six of Ramesses's sons, still wearing their side locks, took part in this conquest. He took towns in Retenu,[28] and Tunip in Naharin,[29] later recorded on the walls of the Ramesseum.[30] This second success here was equally as meaningless as his first, as neither power could decisively defeat the other in battle.[31]
Peace treaty with the Hittites
Main article: Ramses–Hattusili Treaty
The deposed Hittite king, Mursili III fled to Egypt, the land of his country's enemy, after the failure of his plots to oust his uncle from the throne. Hattusili III responded by demanding that Ramesses II extradite his nephew back to Hatti.[32]
This demand precipitated a crisis in relations between Egypt and Hatti when Ramesses denied any knowledge of Mursili's whereabouts in his country, and the two Empires came dangerously close to war. Eventually, in the twenty-first year of his reign (1258 BC), Ramesses decided to conclude an agreement with the new Hittite king at Kadesh, Hattusili III, to end the conflict. The ensuing document is the earliest known peace treaty in world history.[33]
The peace treaty was recorded in two versions, one in Egyptian hieroglyphs, the other in Akkadian, using cuneiform script; both versions survive. Such dual-language recording is common to many subsequent treaties. This treaty differs from others however, in that the two language versions are differently worded. Although the majority of the text is identical, the Hittite version claims that the Egyptians came suing for peace, while the Egyptian version claims the reverse.[34] The treaty was given to the Egyptians in the form of a silver plaque, and this "pocket-book" version was taken back to Egypt and carved into the Temple of Karnak.
The treaty was concluded between Ramesses II and Hattusili III in Year 21 of Ramesses's reign.[35] (c. 1258 BC) Its 18 articles call for peace between Egypt and Hatti and then proceeds to maintain that their respective gods also demand peace. The frontiers are not laid down in this treaty but can be inferred from other documents. The Anastasy A papyrus describes Canaan during the latter part of the reign of Ramesses II and enumerates and names the Phoenician coastal towns under Egyptian control. The harbour town of Sumur north of Byblos is mentioned as being the northern-most town belonging to Egypt, which points to it having contained an Egyptian garrison.[36]
No further Egyptian campaigns in Canaan are mentioned after the conclusion of the peace treaty. The northern border seems to have been safe and quiet, so the rule of the pharaoh was strong until Ramesses II's death, and the waning of the dynasty.[37] When the King of Mira attempted to involve Ramesses in a hostile act against the Hittites, the Egyptian responded that the times of intrigue in support of Mursili III, had passed. Hattusili III wrote to Kadashman-Enlil II, King of Karduniash (Babylon) in the same spirit, reminding him of the time when his father, Kadashman-Turgu, had offered to fight Ramesses II, the king of Egypt. The Hittite king encouraged the Babylonian to oppose another enemy, which must have been the king of Assyria whose allies had killed the messenger of the Egyptian king. Hattusili encouraged Kadashman-Enlil to come to his aid and prevent the Assyrians from cutting the link between the Canaanite province of Egypt and Mursili III, the ally of Ramesses.
Campaigns in Nubia
Ramesses II also campaigned south of the first cataract into Nubia. When Ramesses was about 22, two of his own sons, including Amun-her-khepeshef, accompanied him in at least one of those campaigns. By the time of Ramesses, Nubia had been a colony for two hundred years, but its conquest was recalled in decoration from the temples Ramesses II built at Beit el-Wali[38] (which was the subject of epigraphic work by the Oriental Institute during the Nubian salvage campaign of the 1960s),[39] Gerf Hussein and Kalabsha in northern Nubia. On the south wall of the Beit el-Wali temple, Ramesses II is depicted charging into battle against the Nubians in a war chariot, while his two young sons Amun-her-khepsef and Khaemwaset are shown being present behind him, also in war chariots. On one of the walls of Ramesses's temples it says that in one of the battles with the Nubians he had to fight the whole battle alone without any help from his soldiers.
Campaigns in Libya
During the reign of Ramesses II, there is evidence that the Egyptians were active on a 300-kilometre (190 mi) stretch along the Mediterranean coast, at least as far as Zawiyet Umm el-Rakham.[40] Although the exact events surrounding the foundation of the coastal forts and fortresses is not clear, some degree of political and military control must have been held over the region to allow their construction.
There are no detailed accounts of Ramesses II's undertaking large military actions against the Libyans, only generalised records of his conquering and crushing them, which may or may not refer to specific events that were otherwise unrecorded. It may be that some of the records, such as the Aswan Stele of his year 2, are harking back to Ramesses's presence on his father's Libyan campaigns. Perhaps it was Seti I who achieved this supposed control over the region, and who planned to establish the defensive system, in a manner similar to how he rebuilt those to the east, the Ways of Horus across Northern Sinai.
Religious impact
Ramesses was the pharaoh most responsible for erasing the Amarna Period from history.[citation needed] He, more than any other pharaoh, sought deliberately to deface the Amarna monuments and change the nature of the religious structure and the structure of the priesthood, in order to try to bring it back to where it had been prior to the reign of Akhenaten.[citation needed]
Sed festival
Further information: Sed festival
After reigning for 30 years, Ramesses joined a selected group that included only a handful of Egypt's longest-lived kings. By tradition, in the 30th year of his reign Ramesses celebrated a jubilee called the Sed festival, during which the king was ritually transformed into a god.[41] Only halfway through what would be a 66-year reign, Ramesses had already eclipsed all but a few greatest kings in his achievements. He had brought peace, maintained Egyptian borders and built great and numerous monuments across the empire. His country was more prosperous and powerful than it had been in nearly a century. By becoming a god, Ramesses dramatically changed not just his role as ruler of Egypt, but also the role of his firstborn son, Amun-her-khepsef. As the chosen heir and commander and chief of Egyptian armies, his son effectively became ruler in all but name.
Building activity and monuments
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Ramesses built extensively throughout Egypt and Nubia, and his cartouches are prominently displayed even in buildings that he did not actually construct.[42] There are accounts of his honor hewn on stone, statues, remains of palaces and temples, most notably the Ramesseum in the western Thebes and the rock temples of Abu Simbel. He covered the land from the Delta to Nubia with buildings in a way no king before him had done.[43] He also founded a new capital city in the Delta during his reign called Pi-Ramesses; it had previously served as a summer palace during Seti I's reign.[44]
His memorial temple Ramesseum, was just the beginning of the pharaoh's obsession with building. When he built, he built on a scale unlike almost anything before. In the third year of his reign Ramesses started the most ambitious building project after the pyramids, that were built 1,500 years earlier. The population was put to work on changing the face of Egypt. In Thebes, the ancient temples were transformed, so that each one of them reflected honour to Ramesses as a symbol of this divine nature and power. Ramesses decided to eternalize himself in stone, and so he ordered changes to the methods used by his masons. The elegant but shallow reliefs of previous pharaohs were easily transformed, and so their images and words could easily be obliterated by their successors. Ramesses insisted that his carvings be deeply engraved in the stone, which made them not only less susceptible to later alteration, but also made them more prominent in the Egyptian sun, reflecting his relationship with the sun god, Ra.
Ramesses constructed many large monuments, including the archeological complex of Abu Simbel, and the Mortuary temple known as the Ramesseum. He built on a monumental scale to ensure that his legacy would survive the ravages of time. Ramesses used art as a means of propaganda for his victories over foreigners and are depicted on numerous temple reliefs. Ramesses II also erected more colossal statues of himself than any other pharaoh. He also usurped many existing statues by inscribing his own cartouche on them.
Pi-Ramesses
Further information: Pi-Ramesses
Ramesses II moved the capital of his kingdom from Thebes in the Nile valley to a new site in the eastern Delta. His motives are uncertain, though he possibly wished to be closer to his territories in Canaan and Syria. The new city of Pi-Ramesses (or to give the full name, Pi-Ramesses Aa-nakhtu, meaning "Domain of Ramesses, Great in Victory")[45] was dominated by huge temples and the king's vast residential palace, complete with its own zoo. For a time the site was misidentified as that of Tanis, due to the amount of statuary and other material from Pi-Ramesses found there, but it is now recognised that the Ramasside remains at Tanis were brought there from elsewhere, and the real Pi-Ramesses lies about 30 km south, near modern Qantir.[46] The colossal feet of the statue of Ramesses are almost all that remains above ground today, the rest is buried in the fields.[45]
Ramesseum
Further information: Ramesseum
The temple complex built by Ramesses II between Qurna and the desert has been known as the Ramesseum since the 19th century. The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus marveled at the gigantic and famous temple, now no more than a few ruins.[47]
Oriented northwest and southeast, the temple itself was preceded by two courts. An enormous pylon stood before the first court, with the royal palace at the left and the gigantic statue of the king looming up at the back. Only fragments of the base and torso remain of the syenite statue of the enthroned pharaoh, 17 metres (56 ft) high and weighing more than 1,000 tonnes (980 long tons; 1,100 short tons). The scenes of the great pharaoh and his army triumphing over the Hittite forces fleeing before Kadesh, represented on the pylon. Remains of the second court include part of the internal facade of the pylon and a portion of the Osiride portico on the right. Scenes of war and the alleged rout of the Hittites at Kadesh are repeated on the walls. In the upper registers, feast and honor of the phallic god Min, god of fertility. On the opposite side of the court the few Osiride pillars and columns still left can furnish an idea of the original grandeur.[48]
Scattered remains of the two statues of the seated king can also be seen, one in pink granite and the other in black granite, which once flanked the entrance to the temple. Thirty-nine out of the forty-eight columns in the great hypostyle hall (m 41x 31) still stand in the central rows. They are decorated with the usual scenes of the king before various gods.[23] Part of the ceiling decorated with gold stars on a blue ground has also been preserved. Ramesses's children appear in the procession on the few walls left. The sanctuary was composed of three consecutive rooms, with eight columns and the tetrastyle cell. Part of the first room, with the ceiling decorated with astral scenes, and few remains of the second room are all that is left. Vast storerooms built in mud bricks stretched out around the temple.[48] Traces of a school for scribes were found among the ruins.[49]
A temple of Seti I, of which nothing is now left but the foundations, once stood to the right of the hypostyle hall.[23]
Abu Simbel
Further information: Abu Simbel
In 1255 BC Ramesses and his queen Nefertari had traveled into Nubia to inaugurate a new temple, the great Abu Simbel. It is an ego cast in stone; the man who built it intended not only to become Egypt's greatest pharaoh but also one of its gods.[50]
The great temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel was discovered in 1813 by the famous Swiss Orientalist and traveler Johann Ludwig Burckhardt. However, four years passed before anyone could enter the temple, because an enormous pile of sand almost completely covered the facade and its colossal statues, blocking the entrance. This feat was achieved by the great Paduan explorer Giovanni Battista Belzoni, who managed to reach the interior on 4 August 1817.[51]
Other Nubian monuments
As well as the famous temples of Abu Simbel, Ramesses left other monuments to himself in Nubia. His early campaigns are illustrated on the walls of Beit el-Wali (now relocated to New Kalabsha). Other temples dedicated to Ramesses are Derr and Gerf Hussein (also relocated to New Kalabsha).
Tomb of Nefertari
Further information: Tomb of Nefertari
The most important and famous of Ramesses's consorts was discovered by Ernesto Schiaparelli in 1904.[48][51] Although it had been looted in ancient times, the tomb of Nefertari is extremely important, because its magnificent wall painting decoration is regarded as one of the greatest achievements of ancient Egyptian art. A flight of steps cut out of the rock gives access to the antechamber, which is decorated with paintings based on chapter 17 of the Book of the Dead. This astronomical ceiling represents the heavens and is painted in dark blue, with a myriad of golden five-pointed stars. The east wall of the antechamber is interrupted by a large opening flanked by representation of Osiris at left and Anubis at right; this in turn leads to the side chamber, decorated with offering scenes, preceded by a vestibule in which the paintings portray Nefertari being presented to the gods who welcome her. On the north wall of the antechamber is the stairway that goes down to the burial chamber. This latter is a vast quadrangular room covering a surface area of about 90 square metres (970 sq ft), the astronomical ceiling of which is supported by four pillars entirely covered with decoration. Originally, the queen's red granite sarcophagus lay in the middle of this chamber. According to religious doctrines of the time, it was in this chamber, which the ancient Egyptians called the golden hall that the regeneration of the deceased took place. This decorative pictogram of the walls in the burial chamber drew inspirations from chapters 144 and 146 of the Book of the Dead: in the left half of the chamber, there are passages from chapter 144 concerning the gates and doors of the kingdom of Osiris, their guardians, and the magic formulas that had to be uttered by the deceased in order to go past the doors.[51]
Tomb KV5
Further information: KV5
In 1995, Professor Kent Weeks, head of the Theban Mapping Project rediscovered Tomb KV5. It has proven to be the largest tomb in the Valley of the Kings, and originally contained the mummified remains of some of this king's estimated 52 sons. Approximately 150 corridors and tomb chambers have been located in this tomb as of 2006 and the tomb may contain as many as 200 corridors and chambers.[52] It is believed that at least 4 of Ramesses's sons including Meryatum, Sety, Amun-her-khepeshef (Ramesses's first born son) and "the King's Principal Son of His Body, the Generalissimo Ramesses, justified" (i.e.: deceased) were buried there from inscriptions, ostracas or canopic jars discovered in the tomb.[53] Joyce Tyldesley writes that thus far
- "no intact burials have been discovered and there have been little substantial funeral debris: thousands of potsherds, faience ushabti figures, beads, amulets, fragments of Canopic jars, of wooden coffins ... but no intact sarcophagi, mummies or mummy cases, suggesting that much of the tomb may have been unused. Those burials which were made in KV5 were thoroughly looted in antiquity, leaving little or no remains."[53]
Colossal statue
Further information: Statue of Ramesses II (Mit Rahina)
The colossal statue of Ramesses II was reconstructed and erected in Ramesses Square in Cairo in 1955. In August 2006, contractors moved his 3,200-year-old statue from Ramesses Square, to save it from exhaust fumes that were causing the 83-tonne (82-long-ton; 91-short-ton) statue to deteriorate.[54] The statue was originally taken from a temple in Memphis. The new site will be located near the future Grand Egyptian Museum.[55]Death and legacy
By the time of his death, aged about 90 years, Ramesses was suffering from severe dental problems and was plagued by arthritis and hardening of the arteries.[56] He had made Egypt rich from all the supplies and riches he had collected from other empires. He had outlived many of his wives and children and left great memorials all over Egypt, especially to his beloved first queen Nefertari. Nine more pharaohs took the name Ramesses in his honour, but none equalled his greatness. Nearly all of his subjects had been born during his reign. Ramesses II did become the legendary figure he so desperately wanted to be, but this was not enough to protect Egypt. New enemies were attacking the empire, which also suffered internal problems and could not last indefinitely. Less than 150 years after Ramesses died the Egyptian empire fell and the New Kingdom came to an end.Mummy
Ramesses II was originally buried in the tomb KV7 in the Valley of the Kings but, because of looting, priests later transferred the body to a holding area, re-wrapped it, and placed it inside the tomb of queen Inhapy. 72 hours later it was again moved, to the tomb of the high priest Pinudjem II. All of this is recorded in hieroglyphics on the linen covering the body.[57] His mummy is today in Cairo's Egyptian Museum.The pharaoh's mummy reveals a hooked nose and strong jaw, and stands at some 1.7 metres (5 ft 7 in).[58] His ultimate successor was his thirteenth son, Merneptah.
In Paris, it was found that Ramesses's mummy was being attacked by fungus, which it was treated for. During the examination, scientific analysis revealed battle wounds and old fractures, as well as the pharaoh's arthritis and poor circulation.
Egyptologists were also interested by the mummy's noticeably thin neck. An X-ray revealed that the neck had a piece of wood lodged into the upper chest, essentially keeping the head in place. It is believed that during the mummification process the head had accidentally been knocked off by those performing the mummification. In Egyptian culture if any part of the body were to come off, the soul of the body would not continue to exist in the afterlife, so those performing the mummification carefully placed the head back and lodged a wooden stick into the neck in order to keep the head in place.[citation needed]
It is believed that Ramesses II was essentially crippled with arthritis and walked with a hunched back for the last decades of his life.[62] A recent study excluded ankylosing spondylitis as a possible cause of the pharaoh's arthritis.[63] A significant hole in the pharaoh's mandible was detected. Researchers observed "an abscess by his teeth (which) was serious enough to have caused death by infection, although this cannot be determined with certainty." Microscopic inspection of the roots of Ramesses II's hair proved that the king's hair was originally red, which suggests that he came from a family of redheads.[64] This has more than just cosmetic significance: in ancient Egypt people with red hair were associated with the god Seth, the slayer of Osiris, and the name of Ramesses II's father, Seti I, means "follower of Seth."[65] After Ramesses's mummy returned to Egypt it was visited by President Anwar Sadat and his wife.
Popular culture
Ramesses was considered the inspiration for Percy Bysshe Shelley's famous poem "Ozymandias". Diodorus Siculus gives an inscription on the base of one of his sculptures as: "King of Kings am I, Osymandias. If anyone would know how great I am and where I lie, let him surpass one of my works."[66] This is paraphrased in Shelley's poem.
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